There are several arguments in the Bible against the monistic anthropology view:
1. God is a spirit (pneuma) without a body, so there is not necessarily a need for a physical body to talk about personality. If personality does not depend on the body in an absolute sense, then we can not only say that we are a body, but also that we have a body.
2. The Old Testament primarily emphasizes human unity, but this does not mean it is strictly monistic:
- the Old Testament also contains references to the inner being of man
- several theologians (e.g., E. Jacob) showed that the term "heart" in the Old Testament refers to the inner being of man, which differs from the external man (cf. Ps 73:26)
- Prov 20:27 "The spirit of man is the lamp of the LORD, searching all his innermost parts."
- in the Old Testament, we see faint hints that there is life after the death of the body: Ps 73:24-26, Ps 49:6-16, Prov 15:24.
- the Old Testament strongly condemns necromancy (Lev 20:6; Deut 18:9-12; 2Kings 21:6; 23:24; Isa 8:19-20; 19:3; 1Sam 28:3-25), which at least makes it likely that Jews generally believed in the existence of the soul after death. Notably, while the prophets often ridiculed the worship of other gods by pointing out that these gods did not exist, they never refuted the inquiry from the dead by denying the continuation of the souls of the deceased!
- the intertestamental literature clearly represents the view that the soul continues to live after the body has been placed in the grave (it is unlikely that this would be entirely contrary to the Old Testament Hebrew view, rather, what was present in seed form in the Old Testament became an explicitly formulated belief before the New Testament times, openly professed by the Pharisees - with whom Paul, even as a Christian, agreed - against the Sadducees)
3. The New Testament clarifies the divine revelation in many ways; the biblical revelation is gradual, so the Old Testament's image of man also becomes clearer in the light of the New Testament's teaching.
- Paul, along with the Pharisees, not only believed in angels and resurrection but also in a soul separate from the body, as he testified during a debate
- Acts 23:6-8 "But when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, 'Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee; concerning the hope and resurrection of the dead I am being judged!' And when he had said this, a dissension arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees; and the assembly was divided. For Sadducees say that there is no resurrection—and no angel or spirit; but the Pharisees confess both."
- We also see this duality in Paul's letters:
* 1 Cor 2:11 "For what man knows the things of a man except the spirit of the man which is in him? Even so no one knows the things of God except the Spirit of God."
* 1 Cor 5:3 "For I indeed, as absent in body but present in spirit, have already judged (as though I were present) him who has so done this deed."
* 1 Cor 5:5 "deliver such a one to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that his spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus."
* 1 Cor 7:34 "There is a difference between a wife and a virgin. The unmarried woman cares about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and in spirit. But she who is married cares about the things of the world—how she may please her husband."
* 2 Cor 4:16 "Therefore we do not lose heart. Even though our outward man is perishing, yet the inward man is being renewed day by day." (from the context, it is clear that this is about the body and soul)
* 2 Cor 7:1 "Therefore, having these promises, beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God."
* Col 2:5 "For though I am absent in the flesh, yet I am with you in spirit, rejoicing to see your good order and the steadfastness of your faith in Christ."
- James also spoke of the body and soul: James 2:26 "For as the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without works is dead also."
- in the New Testament, we see that the immaterial part of man continues to live after the death of the body: Mt 22:31-32 "But concerning the resurrection of the dead, have you not read what was spoken to you by God, saying, 'I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob'? God is not the God of the dead, but of the living." The future resurrection guarantees that they are alive now after their death (which is expressed in the present tense: God is their God now, not just in the past!)
- the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31) suggests that people continue to live in a conscious state between their death and resurrection, even though their bodies rest in the grave. It is not convincing to object that Jesus only used a popular legend here, for if the situation described in the parable cannot be true, then Jesus would have reinforced a mistake (as evidenced by the fact that Christians in almost every age took this parable as teaching!)
- Jesus' spirit (pneuma) separated from his body upon death and went to heaven with the thief's spirit (while their bodies were buried). Lk 23:46 "Then Jesus, calling out with a loud voice, said, 'Father, into your hands I commit my spirit (pneuma)!' And having said this he breathed his last."
- Lk 23:43 "And he said to him, 'Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in paradise.'"
- Monistic interpretation: "Truly, I say to you today, you will be with me in paradise." (The word "today" refers to when Jesus makes the promise, not to when it is fulfilled.)
- Objection 1: The word "today" would then be unnecessary redundancy, especially unlikely when someone is speaking with difficulty!
- Objection 2: The natural reading is that Jesus, using his favorite expression ("Truly, I tell you"), emphasizes his statement: "Today you will be with me in paradise!"
- Objection 3: The promise's immediacy makes Jesus' words especially comforting: even today!
- Stephen's spirit (pneuma) went to God upon death: Acts 7:59-60 "And as they were stoning Stephen, he called out, 'Lord Jesus, receive my spirit (pneuma).' Falling to his knees, he cried out with a loud voice, 'Lord, do not hold this sin against them.' And when he had said this, he died." Stephen saw Jesus standing at the right hand of God, ready to receive him (7:56).
- Paul was convinced that death meant a joyful communion with Christ, and in this state, separated from our bodies, we are "naked" spirits, waiting for our resurrection and "putting on" the imperishable body: 2 Cor 5:1-10, Phil 1:21-24.
- The Epistle to the Hebrews speaks about worshiping God in the presence of the spirits of the righteous made perfect around God's throne: Heb 12:22-24.
- In the Book of Revelation, the deceased saints are in conscious communion with God: 4:4, 6:9-11, 7:9-17, 20:4.
- Peter speaks of the torment of the spirits of the unbelievers between their death and the final judgment: 1 Pet 3:19-20, 2 Pet 2:9.
The view of monism, in the light of the New Testament's teaching (as traditionally understood by Christians), thus does not hold up, no matter how popular it has become in recent decades. The rest of the text also confirms that the duality of the spirit-soul and body – a feature of human nature – is among the fundamental tenets of biblical anthropology. However, between 1930 and 1960, it became fashionable among theologians to deny this. Under the influence of J. Pedersen's Old Testament interpretations and R. Bultmann's New Testament interpretations, and due to their disillusionment from the 19th-century idealism, authors en masse insisted that according to the 'Hebrew way of thinking,' man forms a coordinated, indivisible (psychosomatic) unity: he does not have a body, he himself is the body, and so on. They were right in emphasizing that, by stressing the unity of personality in biblical thinking, they discarded the long-standing mixture of Christian faith and vulgar Platonism. Yet under the influence of academic fashion, they too quickly abandoned the doctrine of dual structure. Though this decision was relatively weak and methodologically dubious, they did not take the time to review it. Ultimately, this elicited a healthy reaction. Robert H. Gundry, in his recently published work on the concept of the body, reconstructs the biblical interpretation of almost every Christian generation on this issue. The duality is unmistakably outlined in the New Testament, as in contemporary Jewish religion; moreover, this view is presupposed by the doctrine of the intermediate state, i.e., the survival of the spirit-soul without the body between death and resurrection. As for the Old Testament, despite the vagueness of the concepts and the ambiguity of the words, it would be a mistake to think that this duality is not present in it. We often find references to the inner life of man, which the Old Testament authors call the heart.
John W. Cooper's relatively new study also challenges the monistic stance, advocating instead for a "holistic dualism" (Body, Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology and the Monism-Dualism Debate, Eerdmans, 1989); other authors who have argued for a dualistic view in recent years include W. Grudem: Systematic Theology; R.H. Gundry: Soma in Biblical Theology With Emphasis on Pauline Anthropology; H. Ridderbos: Paul: An Outline of His Theology; John Murray: The Nature of Man; C. Ryrie: Basic Theology; C. Venema: The Promise of the Future.